Category: Anatomy

NO AI RESPONSE!
Discussion must be at least 250 words.
Evaluate and distinguish between the anatomical and functional divisions of the nervous system.
Devise a detailed description of the structure and functions of each organelle in a typical neuron.
Distinguish the locations and functions of the four neuroglial cells in CNS and the two neuroglial cells in PNS.
Categorize the structure of the spinal cord to its function. Include all levels of the cord.
Peer response must be at least 150 words
Linda:
Evaluate and distinguish between the anatomical and functional divisions of the nervous system.
The nervous system is divided into anatomical and functional divisions that help organize its complex structure and functions. Anatomically, it consists of the Central Nervous System (CNS), including the brain and spinal cord, and the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), which comprises nerves extending to the rest of the body. Functionally, the nervous system is split into the somatic nervous system, which controls voluntary muscle movements and conveys sensory information, and the autonomic nervous system, which regulates involuntary functions like heart rate and digestion. This includes the sympathetic division, which prepares the body for stress-related activities, and the parasympathetic division, which conserves energy and supports non-emergency functions.
Devise a detailed description of the structure and functions of each organelle in a typical neuron.
A typical neuron features several key organelles, each with distinct structures and functions. The nucleus houses DNA, directing cellular activities including gene expression and protein synthesis. Surrounding the nucleus, the cytoplasm contains organelles like mitochondria, which generate ATP, powering various neuronal functions. The rough endoplasmic reticulum is studded with ribosomes, crucial for protein synthesis, while the smooth endoplasmic reticulum produces lipids and participates in detoxification. The Golgi apparatus modifies, sorts, and packages proteins and lipids for secretion. Lysosomes break down cellular waste, andperoxisomes detoxify harmful substances. Structurally, dendrites receive incoming signals, and the axon transmits impulses away from the neuron. The axon terminals communicate with other neurons or muscles at synapses.
Distinguish the locations and functions of the four neuroglial cells in CNS and the two neuroglial cells in PNS.
In the Central Nervous System (CNS), four primary types of neuroglial cells play crucial roles: Astrocytes support and nourish neurons, regulate extracellular ion balance, and form the blood-brain barrier. Oligodendrocytes insulate neurons by forming myelin sheaths around CNS axons, enhancing electrical conduction.Microglia act as immune cells by scavenging pathogens and debris. Ependymal cells line the brain’s ventricles and spinal cord’s central canal, producing cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) that cushions and nourishes the CNS.
In the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS), Schwann cells also produce myelin, enveloping axons to facilitate rapid signal transmission. Satellite cells provide structural support and regulate the external chemical environment for neurons in ganglia.
Categorize the structure of the spinal cord to its function. Include all levels of the cord.
The spinal cord, encased in the vertebral column, is a crucial conduit between the brain and the body, segmented into cervical, thoracic, lumbar, sacral, and coccygeal regions. Each segment correlates to specific body functions:
Cervical: Controls movements and sensations in the head, neck, arms, and diaphragm.
Thoracic: Influences trunk and abdominal muscle function.
Lumbar: Manages movements in the legs and feet.
Sacral: Affects the pelvic organs, legs, and feet.
Coccygeal: Provides a minor nerve supply to the area around the tailbone.
Together, these segments enable complex motor tasks, sensory processing, and autonomic control throughout the body, crucial for activities ranging from breathing to walking.

I need to write a research paper on: what is the impact of stress on the body; understanding the role of glands in stress response and rising prevalence of stress disorders. 
I need an introduction, three body paragraphs and one conclusion. 
The first body paragraph should answer this question: what is stress? Symptoms and prevention. 
The second body paragraph should answer this question: what glands are present not only to tackle stress but to but to produce stress and how do they do it? 
The third body paragraph should answer this question: how are stress disorders affecting individuals more and more. 
The 5 slices I need to use are these: 
1. Science of stress: 
https://fi.edu/en/blog/science-stress#:~:text=In%20%20general%2C%20%20scientists%20think%20%20of,behavioral%2C%20emotional%2C%20and%20%20cognitive
2. Understanding the stres response: 
https://www.health.harvard.edu/staying-healthy/understanding-the-stress-response
3. Anatomy grade 12 presentation(this is an important source): 
PRESENTATION ATTACHED BELOW  
4. Stress disorders: 
https://www.med.unc.edu/psych/csi/stress-related-disorders/
5. What glands and hormones are present in stress: 
https://www.hopkinsmedicine.org/health/conditions-and-diseases/adrenal-glands#:~:text=Like%20several%20other%20hormones%20produced,energy%20to%20endure%20unusual%20strain
NO AI PLEASE THANK U!!

Requirements:
Your paper should be 2 pages in length, excluding title and reference pages.
Include at least two credible references, in addition to the course textbook. Also cite your sources in the body of the paper.
Conform to the APA guidelines in the CSU Global Writing Center.
The CSU Global Library is a good place to find these references.

Explain the anatomical concepts associated with the central nervous system. Summarize this module’s key points in 5-6 sentences.  
Explain the physiological concepts associated with the central nervous system. Summarize this module’s key points in 5-6 sentences.  
How will you apply the concepts you have learned about the central nervous system in real life and in your future career? 
Which topic within this module has been the most valuable to your learning experience and why? 
Which topic(s) within this module did you struggle to understand and why? 
(Optional) Do you have any suggestions for your instructor on how they could help you connect with the difficult topics you’ve noted?

NO AI RESPONSE!
Discussion must be at least 250 words
Analyze the three sections of the brain stem, their individual functions, and their component role in brain physiology.
Categorize the brainstem, cerebellum, and cerebrum in terms of anatomy and functions.
Evaluate the functions of the ventricles of the brain and the choroid plexus, including their role in the formation and maintenance of CSF.
Distinguish the cranial nerves and categorize if the nerve is sensory, motor, or mixed and its major function(s).
Peer response must be at least 150 words
Maria:
Analyze the three sections of the brain stem, their individual functions, and their component role in brain physiology
The brain stem is divided into three sections: the medulla oblongata, the pons, and the midbrain. Each section has its own specific functions and plays a crucial role in brain physiology.
Medulla Oblongata:
Located at the base of the brain stem.
Controls vital functions such as breathing, heart rate, and blood pressure.
Regulates reflexes like coughing, sneezing, and swallowing.
Coordinates signals between the brain and spinal cord.
Pons:
Situated above the medulla oblongata.
Acts as a bridge connecting different parts of the brain.
Helps relay signals between the cerebrum and cerebellum.
Plays a role in controlling sleep, arousal, and facial movements.
Assists in regulating breathing.
Midbrain:
Located above the pons.
Involved in sensory and motor functions.
Helps control eye movements and visual reflexes.
Plays a role in auditory processing and reflexes.
Contains the substantia nigra, which produces dopamine and is involved in movement control.
(Basinger & Hogg, 2023)
Categorize the brainstem, cerebellum, and cerebrum in terms of anatomy and functions
Brain Stem 
It consists of posterior of brain, it includes midbrain, medulla oblongata and pons varoli, it is site for origin of 10 cranial nerves out of total of 10 cranial nerves 
Coordinates message flow between brain and spinal cord, it is also site of controlling involuntary activities like blood pressure, regulation, breathing rate, reflex actions, etc. 
Cerebrum 
It is part of forebrain, it consists of functional areas: temporal, occipital, parietal, frontal, it doesn’t not contain branched white matter, it is the largest part of the brain, it consists of two cerebral hemispheres and connecting bundle of fibres called corpus callosum.
It has functional areas for mental activities (frontal), emotions, fear, anger(Parietal), Auditory(Temporal), vision (occipital). It also helps in association of sensory information with learning and memory. 
Cerebellum 
It is part of hind brain, it consist of three lobes and cerebellar vermis, it contains branched white matter called arbor vitae, it is second largest part of brain, it consists of cerebellar hemispheres and connecting vermis.
It helps in maintain balance and posture of body. It helps in balancing movements like cycling, walking, writing etc.
Evaluate the functions of the ventricles of the brain and the choroid plexus, including their role in the formation and maintenance of CSF.
The ventricles of the brain and the choroid plexus play crucial roles in the formation and maintenance of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). CSF is a clear, colorless fluid that surrounds and protects the brain and spinal cord. It provides nutrients, removes waste products, and acts as a cushion against mechanical shocks.
-Production of CSF:
The choroid plexus, located in the ventricles of the brain, is responsible for producing CSF.
Specialized cells in the choroid plexus called ependymal cells actively transport ions and other substances from the blood into the ventricles.
These substances include water, electrolytes, glucose, and certain proteins.
The ependymal cells regulate the composition of CSF by selectively allowing certain substances to pass through while preventing others from entering.
-Circulation of CSF:
CSF is produced in the lateral ventricles, which are located in the cerebral hemispheres.
From the lateral ventricles, CSF flows into the third ventricle through the interventricular foramina.
The third ventricle is located in the diencephalon, between the two halves of the brain.
CSF then passes through the cerebral aqueduct, a narrow channel, into the fourth ventricle located in the brainstem.
From the fourth ventricle, CSF can exit the ventricular system through three openings: the median aperture and two lateral apertures.
-Absorption and circulation of CSF:
CSF is absorbed into the bloodstream through structures called arachnoid granulations or villi.
These structures are located in the meninges, the protective membranes surrounding the brain and spinal cord.
Arachnoid granulations protrude into the venous sinuses, which are large blood vessels in the brain.
CSF is reabsorbed into the bloodstream through these arachnoid granulations, maintaining a balance between CSF production and absorption.
Distinguish the cranial nerves and categorize if the nerve is sensory, motor, or mixed and its major function(s).
The cranial nerves can be categorized as sensory, motor, or mixed based on their functions. Here are the major functions of each cranial nerve:
Olfactory (I) – Sensory: Responsible for the sense of smell.
Optic (II) – Sensory: Responsible for vision.
Oculomotor (III) – Motor: Controls most of the eye movements, including constriction of the pupil and accommodation of the lens for near vision.
Trochlear (IV) – Motor: Controls the superior oblique muscle of the eye, which helps with downward and inward eye movements.
Trigeminal (V) – Mixed: Sensory function includes sensation in the face, scalp, and teeth, while motor function involves the muscles of mastication (chewing).
Abducens (VI) – Motor: Controls the lateral rectus muscle of the eye, which helps with outward eye movements.
Facial (VII) – Mixed: Sensory function includes taste sensation on the anterior two-thirds of the tongue, while motor function involves facial expression muscles and control of tear and salivary glands.
Vestibulocochlear (VIII) – Sensory: Responsible for hearing and balance.
Glossopharyngeal (IX) – Mixed: Sensory function includes taste sensation on the posterior one-third of the tongue, while motor function involves swallowing and control of salivary glands.
Vagus (X) – Mixed: Sensory function includes sensation in the throat, larynx, and thoracic and abdominal organs, while motor function involves swallowing, speech, and control of thoracic and abdominal organs.
Accessory (XI) – Motor: Controls the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles, which are involved in head and shoulder movements.
Hypoglossal (XII) – Motor: Controls the muscles of the tongue, which are involved in speech and swallowing. 

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Instructions
Assignment Instructions
Create an 8-10 slide PPT, or some other presentation, that accomplishes the following:
Choose one of the following two topics:
Drawing on what you know of pre-Socratic and classical philosophy (i.e. the philosophy of Socrates and Plato) as well as what you know of modern philosophy (i.e. the philosophy of Descartes and Locke), compare and contrast the concerns of modern and ancient philosophy. Do the ancients care about the same problems as the moderns? If not, what are the major differences between them? Can those differences be reconciled? Why or why not? If not, then which approach to philosophical questioning is the most valuable? Why?
Consider the debate between Rationalism and Empiricism. What are the major differences between these two traditions in their approach to the theory of knowledge and metaphysics? What are the differences in their methods and attitudes to doing philosophy? Which tradition is more convincing/more useful as an approach to seeking answers to philosophical questions and to seeking meaning in life? Why?
Present research on each tradition that clearly discuss both sides of the relevant debate. Try to favor reputable sources from the APUS library or philosophy program guide (i.e. no Wikipedia, Course Hero, Spark Notes, etc.).
Include a proper references/works cited slide (APA or MLA).
Keep in mind these best practices, please: 
Proper PPTs have bullets on the slide that are explained in the notes section or that include audio recordings embedded in the slides in which you narrate the presentation (see video on how to do this if you do not know how). You must provide narration for the presentation in some way—i.e. either as notes or as audio recordings.
If you intend to narrate the presentation with audio recordings, be sure to include the transcript in the notes section (see PPT on how to insert audio if you do not know and want to give that a shot). 
If, for any reason you are unable to access the notes section, put the transcript/notes in a MS Word document in a numbered list with the numbers matching the slide.
Keep the viewer in mind (teacher). While you might work hard on a 20-minute presentation, few faculty members have the time to watch or listen to it.
Just like papers, clear citations must appear on the slide, i.e. where an audience viewing your presentation would naturally be able to see the citation, to justify listing a resource as a reference.
Due on Apr 28, 2024 11:55 PM
Attachments
Adding audio to your PPT.pptx (527.38 KB)
Finding the Notes Section – PPT.mp4 (4.85 

In this case study, we look at the clinical implications of what happens to a client when one of a cell’s “tiny organ” organelles fails to function properly. In particular, we will use a lysosomal storage disease to demonstrate this.

My topic for my anatomy and physiology paper is the problem of genetically modifying babies to achieve the parents standards. It can cause medical problems to the baby itself. Explain if it’s fair to have that option out in the world. What are the outcomes of modifying a baby, for example it can cause medical issues. Is modifying a babies genetics going against religion. What rights should be applied to modifying the baby. Those are some of the questions I would like answered and included in the paper. The requirements are gonna be listed in the file I attached 

Using the material on moral compasses from weeks 1 and 2, write a paper of no less than 500 words that accomplishes the following:
Choose one of the four templates, Markkula- APA or MLA, or Brown – APA or MLA and follow directions. The information below offers an elaboration on these directions.
In a section titled “Theories” identify the 1-3 moral theories you will use to build your compass (deontological, utilitarian, common good, virtue, etc.) along with a short documented definition for each theory. [“documented” in the sense of citing and referencing your source.]
In a section titled “Explanation” explain for each theory how it would help you make what you feel would be the right decision and in what situations (ex. Using deontology at work to ensure the company’s policies are kept and its reputation is upheld; Using care ethics at home as a way to be equitable with the kids, etc.).
In a third section titled “Compass Applied” chose one topic from the Markkula Center for Applied Ethics (under “Ethics Spotlight”) or another pressing ethical situation you or others you know are facing at the moment and use ether Framework for Ethical Decision Making (Markkula or Brown), walk through the steps to make an ethical decision and justify what you decide is the moral action to take in this situation.
Be sure to be clear on which of the two frameworks you are using. Be sure you are clear on what you are doing. See the attached templates for the best way to address this assignment. The content is the same, just the formatting on each is different.
Note all papers must be double-spaced and follow either APA or MLA formatting.

The pathophysiology of Osteoporosis 
Osteoporosis is a disease characterized by a decrease in bone mass that occurs when the rate of bone resorption exceeds the rate of bone formation, a common occurrence as the body ages (Betts et al.,2022). This causes the bones to become brittle to the point where even something as simple as bending over can cause the bones to break. This disease is often called a “silent” disease because symptoms usually go unnoticed until you break a bone. A break or fracture can happen in any bone, but it is most common in the bones of femoral head, vertebrae, and wrists. Osteoporosis is more common in women and/or anyone with a family history of the disease. It affects almost 20% (1 in 5) of women aged 50 and over and almost 5% (1 in 20) of men aged 50 and over (CDC, para 3). 
This disease affects the bones of the skeletal system. Bone is a dynamic tissue constantly undergoing. These changes occur when old or damaged bone tissue is removed, and new bone tissue is formed. The pathophysiology of osteoporosis involves a disruption in the balance between bone formation and bone resorption, resulting in a loss of bone mass and deterioration. Bone resorption occurs when osteoclasts remove bone by dissolving minerals and breaking down the matrix (Rockville, 2004). This causes an imbalance favoring bone resorption over formation. 
Normal Anatomy of the Skeletal System 
The bones of the skeletal system provide structural support for the rest of the body, permit movement and locomotion by providing levers for the muscles, protect vital internal organs and structures, provide maintenance of mineral homeostasis and acid-base balance, serve as a reservoir of growth factors and cytokines, and provide the environment for hematopoiesis within the marrow spaces (Clarke B. (2008). There are 206 bones in an adult body.  
They are classified into five primary types: long bones, short bones, flat bones, irregular bones, and sesamoid bones (Betts et al.,2022). Each type of bone has unique characteristics and functions. Bone is made of protein, collagen, and minerals, especially calcium. Collagen provides a framework for incorporating minerals, mainly calcium phosphate into the collagen framework. The mineral makes bone hard and strong, while the collagen offers flexibility so the bone can resist breaking (Branch, 2023). 
Mechanism of Pathophysiology in Osteoporosis 
The pathophysiology of osteoporosis involves multiple factors, including hormonal changes, genetics, age, and poor diet. As our bodies age, we begin to slow down on the production of the sex hormones estrogen and testosterone. A decrease in estrogen levels in women at menopause is one of the most vital risk factors for developing osteoporosis; because of this, women are more at risk for developing this disease. Between the age of 45-50, women will enter menopause. Menopause occurs when the menstrual period ceases, thus slowing down the production of estrogen. Estrogen is a steroid hormone associated with the female reproductive organs and is responsible for developing female sexual characteristics (Delgado, 2003). Estrogen also plays a crucial role in bone metabolism, particularly in maintaining bone density and strength. It promotes osteoblastic activity and the production of bone matrix; osteoblasts are the cells responsible for forming new bones. (Betts et al.,2022).  
Genetics is another factor that contributes to the development of osteoporosis. It can affect anyone, but it is most common in women. According to the National Library of medicine, people who are slim and thin boned  
Betts,
J. G., Young, K., Wise, J., Johnson, E., Poe, B., Kruse, D., … Desaix, P.
(2022). Anatomy and Physiology. OpenStax. ISBN-13: 978-1-711494-06-7https://openstax.org/details/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2eReferences
Branch, N.
S. C. and O. (2023, May 5). What is bone? National Institute of Arthritis and
Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases.
https://www.niams.nih.gov/health-topics/what-bone
CDC Center
for Disease Control and Prevention; U.S. Department of Health & Human
Services. Does Osteoporosis Run in Your Family? (2022, May 20). [Government]. https://www.cdc.gov/genomics/disease/osteoporosis.htm#:~:text=Osteoporosis%20is%20more%20common%20in,until%20they%20break%20a%20bone.
Clarke B. (2008).
Normal bone anatomy and physiology. Clinical journal of the American Society of
Nephrology : CJASN, 3 Suppl 3(Suppl 3), S131–S139.
https://doi.org/10.2215/CJN.04151206 https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC3152283/#:~:text=The%20bones%20of%20the%20skeleton,growth%20factors%20and%20cytokines%2C%20and
Delgado BJ, Lopez-Ojeda W. Estrogen. [Updated 2023 Jun 26].
In: StatPearls [Internet]. Treasure Island (FL): StatPearls Publishing; 2024
Jan-. Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK538260/
Manolagas,
S. C. MD, PhD Professor of Medicine University of Arkansas for Medical Sciences
(2024, April). Pathogenesis of osteoporosis [Medical].
Https://Www.Uptodate.Com/Contents/Pathogenesis-of-osteoporosis#H15652863; Up to
date.com. https://www.uptodate.com/contents/pathogenesis-of-osteoporosis#H15652863
Rockville .(2004). Bone Health and Osteoporosis: A Report of
the Surgeon General. Rockville (MD): Office of the Surgeon General (US); 2004.
Available from: https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK45513/https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/books/NBK45513/