Category: Anatomy

Paragraph 1: Describe a connective tissue disease or disorder ( Lupus, Marian syndrome or Ehlers-Danlos syndrome) 
Paragraph 2: Describe the causes and risk factors for the disease/disorder 
Paragraph 3: describe treatment options for the disease.
Each post must be 200 words 
Must include proper grammar and scientific terminology 
Must use reliable resources to retrieve information 
Must provide citation 
Must avoid copying/pasting information 
May not use AI 

Hepatitis BEtiology
Hepatitis B is an infectious disease acquired from the hepatitis B virus (HBV), which belongs to the Hepadnaviridae family. This virus has a pyrimidine-containing partially double-stranded DNA genome; it also has a nucleocapsid core and a lipid envelope housing crucial antigens that aid in detecting and advancing the disease. HBV is transmitted mainly through exposure to infectious body fluids such as blood, semen, and vaginal secretions; hence the main modes of transmission are through sexual practices, sharing of needles, and from mother to child (Pyrsopoulos, 2022). The pathophysiology of the disease reflects the virus infection and its outcome on the host immune system, which inflicts injury to the liver tissue and its inflammation, which may lead to cirrhosis and HCC.
Epidemiology
Hepatitis B is also a significant health issue that affects millions of people across the world, particularly in developing nations. It is estimated that about one-third of the world’s population has been infected with HBV, and 250-350 million worldwide are chronically infected. Chronic HBV infection incidence is not constant in all regions, particularly in sub-Saharan Africa, east Asia, and the Pacific Islands, where the rates rise to 20% (Conners et al., 2023). Currently, in the United States of America, new cases of acute HBV are significantly reducing due to vaccination. Yet, around 2 million people are suffering from chronic hepatitis B (SHB), particularly foreign-born individuals coming from highly endemic countries (Pyrsopoulos, 2022). Some of the other risk factors associated with infection with HBV are multiple sexual partners, use of infected needles, or direct exposure to blood at the workplace.
Clinical Features
The symptoms of hepatitis B vary from mild to severe and include jaundice, anorexia, nausea, weight loss, abdominal pain, fatigue, fever, chills, and dark urine. Most people get acute HBV infection, which can have symptoms or be asymptomatic; symptoms include jaundice, fatigue, abdominal pain, and dark urine (Pyrsopoulos, 2022). In some circumstances, acute liver failure can be an outcome of the disease. HBV infection can be safe for years with few or no symptoms and may progress to cirrhosis or HCC. Chronic hepatitis B is usually classified into three phases depending on viral replication and the liver enzyme levels of the patients, namely, the immune-tolerated phase, the immune-reactive phase, and the inactive phase. The immune-active phase is especially troublesome since there are higher rates of liver inflammation and disease progression to cirrhosis and HCC.
Diagnosis
The routine tests used to diagnose hepatitis B include serology, biochemical, and imaging. The key serological markers for the hepatitis B virus include hepatitis B surface antigen (HBsAg), hepatitis B e antigen (HBeAg), and antibodies for these antigens: anti-HBs and anti-HBe (Conners et al., 2023). HBsAg is present during an acute HBV infection, while anti-HBs are present when the persons have been infected or received the hepatitis B vaccine. Some of the biochemical tests used to check liver function include Serum Alanine aminotransferase (ALT) and aspartate aminotransferase (AST) levels, Bilirubin levels, and Albumin levels (Pyrsopoulos, 2022). Diagnostic procedures like abdominal ultrasound and MRI can be used to assess the degree of liver injury and diagnose complications like cirrhosis or HCC. Liver biopsies may be done in order to determine the severity of the liver disease in patients with chronic HBV infection (Pyrsopoulos, 2022).
Complementary Exams
Complementary exams for hepatitis B are integrated with advanced imaging techniques to evaluate liver function and disease progression. Liver biopsy is replaced by FibroScan, an invasive free method that determines the stiffness of the liver to evaluate fibrosis and cirrhosis in patients with HBV (Pyrsopoulos, 2022). Further, the known photoelasticity method, magnetic resonance elastography (MRE), depicts the intensity of the fibers and signs of early fibrosis in the liver. These tests are essential when caring for patients with chronic hepatitis B virus infection since they can predict treatment and possible outcomes. Monitoring HBV DNA levels in patients regularly to assess antiviral response and resistance development is also pivotal.
Treatments
The main aims of hepatitis B treatment are to halt the disease progression, suppress virus replication, and decrease the risk of developing cirrhosis and HCC. Lifestyle change and antiviral therapy are some accepted approaches to treating the illness. Standard agents, which include tenofovir disoproxil fumarate, entecavir, and pegylated interferon-alpha, have been observed to have a high efficiency in the reduction of HBV DNA and improvement of the liver (Pyrsopoulos, 2022). Also, it is documented that for patients with decompensated cirrhosis, liver transplantation is the only curative approach. Additionally, there are counsels like sticking to low-sodium products and not consuming any alcohol to minimize liver injury and aspire for an enhanced standard of health (Pyrsopoulos, 2022). The guidelines of appropriate and efficient antiviral treatments and follow-up can make chronic HBV infection control easier.
References
Conners, E. E., Panagiotakopoulos, L., Hofmeister, M. G., Spradling, P. R., Hagan, L. M., Harris, A. M., Rogers-Brown, J. S., Wester, C., Nelson, N. P., Rapposelli, K., Sandul, A. L., Choi, E., Coffin, C., Marks, K., Thomas, D. L., & Wang, S. H. (2023). Screening and testing for hepatitis B virus infection: CDC recommendations — United States, 2023. MMWR. Recommendations and Reports, 72(1), 1–25. https://doi.org/10.15585/mmwr.rr7201a1
Pyrsopoulos, N. M. (2022, October 20). Hepatitis B. Practice Essentials, Background, Pathophysiology.https://emedicine.medscape.com/article/177632-overview?form=fpf#showall ( Do a PowerPoint )

Module 01: Themes of A&P, Cell, Chemistry, Tissues and skin
Answer with explanations to show your understanding of the material covered in Unit 1. Use appropriate science language and clear explanation using complete, well-constructed sentences. Remember to explain, show off the knowledge you have accumulated, and put in some writing effort (this is a high stake- 30 points assignment). Each question is graded based on this rubric: 
0-5 
points for correct content, critical thinking and application of knowledge/concepts. 
0-3 
points for correct grammar 
0-2 
points for citations (valid sources, including your textbook!- mention page numbers if using the book; and make sure I can access the resource you cite)
Most of you have seen oak leaves fall on driveways and on streets when fall arrives. These pigments form the leaves leave stains behind when blown away. Oak leaves also contain the water-soluble poison tannin. If you rubbed your skin with oak leaves very little is likely to happen to your skin. Why should it not poison you through the skin?  
2. When an inappropriate amino acid is substituted in place of another, as occurs in certain genetic disorders, the resulting protein is either poorly functional or non-functional. Since proteins contain hundreds if not thousands of amino acids, why should the change of a single amino acid be so critical? 
3. How would you prove (or explain) to someone that plants are living beings? 
book name 
Anatomy & Physiology: The Unity of Form and FunctionKenneth Saladin, 10e
Practice Atlas for Anatomy & PhysiologyMcGraw Hill, 1e

Respond to the following questions:
The maintenance of normal volume and composition of extracellular and intracellular fluids is vital to life. List and briefly describe the kinds of homeostasis involved.
Why does maintaining fluid balance in older people require a higher water intake than in a normal, healthy adult under age 40?
Why does potassium concentration rise in patients with acidosis? What is this called? What effects does it have?
Saline solution is used to reverse hypotonic hydration. Are body cell membranes permeable to saline? Explain your response.
Explain the renin-angiotensin mechanism.
Explain how ADH compensates for blood that contains too many solutes.

Unit 6 focused on digestion, nutrition, renal function, and acid-base balance. Much information was presented on all topics, and each topic’s importance must be balanced. We often do not consider how our food and drink consumption impacts our kidney function and urinary output. When one consumes a great deal of water, they will have increased urinary output as the body will maintain a balance of water within the body and will increase the output of diluted urine to maintain homeostasis.
Please complete the following steps for your discussion post and response.
Respond to each of the following questions and make sure to include a description of digestion and renal systems functions in your response:
What are two ways your diet has hurt digestion, renal function, and/or an acid-base balance? This could be you or someone you know.
Discuss at least one chemical, cellular, or organ-based connection of your issues to the food or drink consumed.
How can these negative responses be controlled, addressed, or resolved?
What is a possible long-term effect if these responses are ignored in this system or another system?

Need to investigate about Lupus for a Presentation: -Etiology
-Symptoms ann signs -Diagnostic -Treatment – Prognosis

NO AI Response. Post must be at least 250 words
Using the South University Online Library or the Internet, research about the nervous system. Based on your research and understanding, respond to the following:
Evaluate and distinguish among the divisions and functions of the ANS and the importance of dual innervations.
Categorize the exteroceptors and interoceptors and provide examples of each.
Summarize the sensory pathways to the brain for gustatory and olfactory sensations.
Analyze and describe the process of hearing from the external to inner ear.
Analyze and describe how the ear provides equilibrium and balance for the body.

Respond to each person below either agreeing with something they said or giving positive feedback in 150+words the original question being asked is also included

Each Discussion must be at least 220 words. NO AI Response
Discussion 1:
As this is a discussion, the goal is to debate freely with your peers and to have the opportunity to explore and analyze, not only your chosen question, but also the thoughts of your classmates. You might find that you end on a topic below that is far removed from your original choice. That is ok and encouraged!
Why is it nearly impossible to study physiology without anatomy and vice versa?
Why do we require oxygen for survival?
Why is the anatomical position important?
Why is it important that everyone within healthcare understands the same medical language?
Why is homeostasis the only objective of the human body?
Why do we have both positive and negative feedback mechanisms?
Why does the human body undergo aging?
Why is no single system in the human body considered “an island”?
Discussion 5:
As this is a discussion, the goal is to debate freely with your peers and to have the opportunity to explore and analyze, not only your chosen question, but also the thoughts of your classmates. You might find that you end on a topic below that is far removed from your original choice. That is ok and encouraged!
Why do we have joints in the body that possess very little movement?
Why do we have a greater range of motion in our appendicular skeleton compared to our axial skeleton?
Why do bones in the appendicular skeleton heal faster than the axial skeleton?
Why do joint injuries require a period of immobilization?
Why do some individuals have more flexible joints than others?
Why so some individuals experience joint pain and stiffness in certain weather conditions?
Why do bone lengthening surgeries have ethical implications?
Why are performance enhancing drugs harmful to the appendicular skeleton?
Discussion 7:
As this is a discussion, the goal is to debate freely with your peers and to have the opportunity to explore and analyze, not only your chosen question, but also the thoughts of your classmates. You might find that you end on a topic below that is far removed from your original choice. That is ok and encouraged!
Why is there controversy over the usage of anabolic steroids?
Why do the risks of anabolic steroids outweigh the benefits?
Why does Botox act at the neuromuscular junction?
Why do we see atrophy in a limb after removing an 8-week cast?
Why do muscles only pull and never push?
Why is there disagreement in the role of genetics in determining muscle size and strength?
Why do some experts believe that overtraining leads to muscle loss?
Why are some people better marathoners than sprinters?
Discussion 8:
As this is a discussion, the goal is to debate freely with your peers and to have the opportunity to explore and analyze, not only your chosen question, but also the thoughts of your classmates. You might find that you end on a topic below that is far removed from your original choice. That is ok and encouraged!
Why does damage to the spinal cord often result in paralysis?
Why do some spinal nerves have more sensory or motor function than others?
Why do some people experience chronic itching or tingling after a spinal nerve injury?
Why do some spinal nerves play a more important role than others in autonomic function?
Why do some researchers believe that the spinal cord can regenerate and repair?
Why do some scientists support spinal cord stimulation for the treatment of chronic pain while others argue that it can cause adverse effects?
Why does damage to the spinal cord lead to loss of sensation and movement below the level of injury?
Why is the brain and spinal cord so important in autonomic function?
Discussion 9:
As this is a discussion, the goal is to debate freely with your peers and to have the opportunity to explore and analyze, not only your chosen question, but also the thoughts of your classmates. You might find that you end on a topic below that is far removed from your original choice. That is ok and encouraged!
Why do some individuals with cranial nerve disorders experience autonomic dysfunction?
Why is the brain’s reward system so important for motivation and addiction?
Why do certain brain disorders, such as Parkinson’s or Alzheimer’s progress over time?
Why do some believe that certain types of music or meditation can alter brain function?
Why do some scientists believe that consciousness is an emergent property of the brain versus others who believe that it is a separate, non-physical entity?
Why do some researchers believe that neuromodulation can be used to treat cranial nerve disorders?
Why do some people struggle with impulse control?
Why is it important to assess cranial nerve function?

Circulation
Utilizing knowledge from your learning and assigned readings, respond to the following questions:
Compare and contrasts the anatomy and physiology of blood vessels: arteries, veins and capillaries. Why are these differences significant in the overall function of the circulatory system? Please be specific.
Provide several examples of factors that cause increases or decreases in peripheral resistance and discuss their effect on overall arterial blood pressure.